By MSG Thomas B. Kneipp

The USS Squalus sank on 23 May 1939 during a seemingly routine test dive off the coast of Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The main induction valve failed during the dive, flooding the aft compartments and killing 26 Sailors within minutes. The catastrophic flooding trapped 33 Sailors in the forward compartments at a depth of 240 feet. The Navy faced a moment with no precedent nor margin for error that tested its leadership, professionalism, and technical capacity. Previous submarine disasters had resulted in all crew lost. This time, Navy leaders acted swiftly and decisively, a move that would ultimately result in the successful rescue of all 33 survivors and the salvage of the submarine (Cole, 1939).

The Navy dispatched rescue ships within hours of losing contact with the USS Squalus while divers prepared to operate at unprecedented depths. The crisis forced the Navy to employ experimental technology and unproven diving techniques to attempt a rescue at such a deep depth. Inside the submarine, the officers enforced air discipline, reviewed escape procedures using the new Momsen lung, and maintained their composure under tremendous pressure and complete darkness (Cole, 1939). The USS Squalus crisis demanded more than bravery, it required disciplined leadership, decentralized decision making, and technical mastery at every echelon. Prepared leaders, decisive action, and mutual trust across the fleet directly led to the successful rescue operation and subsequent salvage. The story of the rescue and salvage of the USS Squalus proves that disciplined leadership, mission command, and technical competence enable military organizations to prevail under extreme pressure.

Disciplined Leadership in Crisis

The survival of 33 Sailors began with the disciplined leadership inside the USS Squalus. When the crew reported flooding in the aft engine room, Lieutenant W. T. Doyle, the diving officer in charge of the dive, immediately ordered the crew to blow the ballast and cut in the main air banks in an attempt to restore buoyancy (Doyle, 1939). The crew responded without hesitation. After the submarine lost all power and settled on the bottom at approximately 240 feet, leaders enforced emergency procedures rather than let fear take over. Crewmembers distributed Momsen lungs, prepared carbon dioxide absorbent, tested emergency oxygen systems, and generally restricted movement to conserved energy and oxygen. Doyle (1939) specifically called out the crew’s calm demeaner and technical expertise during the crisis. The crew’s behavior was a product of training and a healthy command climate.

Disciplined leadership is more than issuing commands. It requires presence, composure, and emotional regulation under extreme stress. ADP 6-22 highlights self-control and resilience as essential components of a leader’s character (Department of the Army [DA], 2019a). Harold C. Preble (1939) credits Captain Oliver Naquin’s calm demeanor for calming the crew and sustaining morale as he moved throughout the compartments reassuring his men, reinstructing escape procedures, and enforcing air conservation protocols. Preble (1939) noted the captain’s visible confidence and cool leadership while facing an existential threat. Calm, disciplined leadership stabilized the crew during extreme crisis.

ADP 6-22 states that leaders create climate by modeling behavior and consistent enforcement of standards (DA, 2019a). Leaders inside the USS Squalus had previously established a positive climate through reinforced expectations of procedural compliance, technical expertise, and professional behavior. Because of this positive climate, the crew reverted to their training with precision during the catastrophe. Cole (1939) and Preble (1939) both confirmed the professionalism of the crew by noting the lack of chaos and panic during the sinking and later the high morale and discipline among the crew during the rescue. The leadership of the USS Squalus set the conditions for the crew’s performance under pressure long before the submarine set sail by establishing a positive climate and culture.

Disciplined leadership also prevented the psychological collapse of the crew between the initial sinking and the rescue. As one of the senior officers on board, Preble (1939) reassured the crew that help would come quickly based on trust in their higher command’s competence and expertise in searching operations. His inspired confidence limited anxiety among the crew, thus preserving oxygen and maintaining cohesion. Captain Naquin reinforced this confidence and discipline by maintaining communication across compartments, managing personnel distribution, and modeling behavior. He did not minimize the danger, but rather influenced the crew’s response (Preble, 1939).

Disciplined leadership does not eliminate danger, rather it influences the human response. The crew of the USS Squalus survived the catastrophe because leaders built a culture and climate in which emergency procedures were rehearsed, authority was trusted, and professionalism under stress was expected. Disciplined leadership prevented panic and set the conditions that allowed mission command and technical competence to prevail.

Mission Command Under Pressure

The rescue of the USS Squalus required leaders to respond immediately to coordinate across multiple commands under severe time constraints. Given the state of technology of the time, this was no small feat. Rear Admiral C.W. Cole immediately recognized the overdue surfacing report from the USS Squalus indicated a potential emergency and acted without waiting for confirmation. He dispatched the USS Sculpin, a sister ship, to the area to attempt contact, warned the submarine squadron leadership, and alerted his higher headquarters all within a span of hours (Cole, 1939). Admiral Cole did not delay action to wait for perfect information, he dispatched a ship with orders to locate the USS Squalus and establish communications while he prepared rescue operations.

ADP 6-0 establishes mission command as empowering subordinates to take disciplined initiative within the bounds of the commander’s intent (DA, 2019b). Admiral Cole’s actions aligned with these principles, and he expected the same from his subordinates. He did not micromanage the divers or the positioning of individual rescue ships. He mobilized the USS Falcon, coordinated additional Coast Guard assets, and established command and control to enable his technical experts to operate freely. An example of this was when the USS Falcon arrived in heavy seas to anchor over the located submarine. USS Falcon’s leadership adjusted positioning to accommodate the weather conditions and accomplish the intent, without waiting for direction (Cole, 1939). This was an example of subordinate leaders solving immediate tactical problems to achieve the commander’s intent.

Mission command also requires mutual trust across all echelons (DA, 2019b). The trapped crew trusted surface commanders to respond decisively. Surface commanders trusted the divers operating at extreme depths with experimental equipment and untested decompression procedures. The divers trusted their training and believed in the necessity of the grave personal risk they were assuming. This mutual trust enabled rapid decision making without paralysis. The rescue of the USS Squalus firmly demonstrated that organizations act decisively during crises when leaders build trust beforehand.

Mission command under pressure does not eliminate uncertainty, rather it allows leaders to act decisively despite uncertainty. Naval leaders transformed a disaster into a successful rescue by establishing intent, empowering subordinate leaders, and accepting prudent risk. Their actions prove that mission command enables organizations to prevail when time, information, and margin for error are limited.

Technical Competence and Adaptation

Disciplined leadership and mission command alone could not rescue the trapped crew. Technical competence enabled the successful rescue and salvage operation in extreme conditions. The Navy pressed the experimental McCann Rescue Chamber into operational service, having never been tested at the depth where the USS Squalus had settled. On 24 May 1939, divers descended into the freezing darkness to secure a steel downhaul wire to the forward torpedo room hatch of the USS Squalus, clear fouled lines, and prepare the chamber for attachment (Cole, 1939). The rescue chamber operators made four harrowing trips to rescue all 33 survivors. During the fourth trip, the downhaul wire nearly parted, leaving only a single strand of wire to hold the weight of the chamber and occupants. Leaders assessed the mechanical failure, adjusted the chamber’s buoyancy to neutral, and carefully hauled it to the surface by hand (Cole, 1939). That decision required precise technical judgement and disciplined risk acceptance. The divers and chamber operators did not rely on courage alone, but rather their technical mastery under pressure.

The follow-on salvage operation reinforced the importance of adaptation. The USS Squalus rested much deeper than any previous salvage attempt, limiting diver effectiveness and complicating pontoon lifts. Air diving at that depth was ineffective due to nitrogen narcosis, decompression requirements, and oxygen toxicity, forcing the Navy Experimental Diving Unit to use experimental helium-oxygen breathing mixes. The first pontoon lift attempt failed, but leaders did not abandon the mission. They analyzed the failure, adjusted the lift configuration to maintain greater control, and executed a successful lift (Bartholomew, 1990). The Medal of

Honor citations for Badders, Crandall, McDonald, and Mihalowski highlighted the divers’ technical mastery and bravery as they faced extreme personal danger (Naval History and Heritage Command, 2015). Competence enabled adaptation, leading to success. In crisis situations, preparation and technical mastery often determine whether organizations succeed or fail.

Joint Leadership Principles Across Domains

Although the rescue of the USS Squalus’ crew took place in the historic maritime domain, the leadership principles that determined success apply equally to the contemporary Army profession. Disciplined leadership stabilized the crew of the USS Squalus under extreme pressure. Mission command enabled decentralized execution across multiple ships and commands. Technical competence allowed operating and divers to adapt when equipment failed at depth. Army doctrine expects leaders to influence others through character, presence, and sound judgement while empowering subordinates to act within clear intent (DA, 2019a; DA, 2019b). Naval leaders in 1939 demonstrated these same principles decades before the Army doctrine codified them. While the ocean floor off Portsmouth is vastly different from a contested land domain, the human factors of leadership remain constant. Organizations prevail under extreme pressure when their leaders enforce standards, build mutual trust, and master their craft before a crisis.

Conclusion

The rescue and salvage of the USS Squalus prove that disciplined leadership, mission command, and technical competence enable military organizations to prevail under extreme pressure. The crisis that unfolded on 23 May 1939 tested every level of Naval leadership, from the control room 240 feet below the sea to the operational coordination on the surface. Inside the submarine, disciplined leadership and emotional regulation prevented panic and preserved the lives of 33 Sailors. Captain Naquin and his officers enforced procedures, maintained composure, and sustained morale despite the darkness and uncertainty. Their actions demonstrate that leadership presence and enforced standards determine how organizations respond when systems fail.

On the surface, mission command transformed uncertainty into coordinated action. Admiral Cole established clear intent and mobilized resources without waiting for perfect information. Subordinate commanders exercised disciplined initiative, located the submarine, and executed rescue operations under extreme dynamic conditions. Divers and operators adapted on the fly when mechanical failures threatened the final ascent of the rescue chamber. Their decisions reflect the enduring value of decentralized execution that depends on mutual trust and professional competence.

Technical mastery enabled the mission to succeed. Divers operated at unprecedented depths using experimental equipment and methods. Leaders analyzed failures, adjusted plans, and continued the cycle until they were successful. The Navy did not rely on courage alone, but rather preparation, innovation, and disciplined execution. The rescue and salvage of the USS Squalus endures as a case study in leadership under extreme pressure. The domain may differ between sea and land, but the principles remain constant. Organizations prevail in crises when leaders enforce discipline, empower initiative, and master their craft before adversity strikes.

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Show Notes

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© 2026 MSG Thomas B Kneipp

MSG Thomas B Kneipp is a 12D (Engineer Diver) and attending the Sergeant Major Course at Fort Bliss, Texas. He holds a Master of Communications in Organization Leadership and Change, Doctoral Certificate in Strategic Leadership

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